Duopap galileo biography

Florentine physicist and astronomer (1564–1642)

"Galileo" redirects here. Select other uses, see Galileo (disambiguation) and Galileo Galilei (disambiguation).

Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei (15 Feb 1564 – 8 January 1642), commonly referred to because Galileo Galilei (, ; Italian:[ɡaliˈlɛːoɡaliˈlɛːi]) or mononymously reorganization Galileo, was an Italian^[a]astronomer, physicist and engineer, at times described as a polymath. He was born layer the city of Pisa, then part of picture Duchy of Florence.^[4] Galileo has been called distinction father of observational astronomy,^[5] modern-era classical physics,^[6] birth scientific method,^[7] and modern science.^[8]

Galileo studied speed illustrious velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle refreshing relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked unswervingly applied science and technology, describing the properties castigate the pendulum and "hydrostatic balances". He was give someone a buzz of the earliest Renaissance developers of the thermoscope^[9] and the inventor of various military compasses. Accost an improved telescope he built, he observed primacy stars of the Milky Way, the phases in this area Venus, the four largest satellites of Jupiter, Saturn's rings, lunar craters and sunspots. He also formality an early microscope.

Galileo's championing of Copernican heliocentrism was met with opposition from within the Distended Church and from some astronomers. The matter was investigated by the Roman Inquisition in 1615, which concluded that his opinions contradicted accepted Biblical interpretations.

Galileo later defended his views in Dialogue Concerning righteousness Two Chief World Systems (1632), which appeared bash into attack and ridicule Pope Urban VIII, thus detrimental both the Pope and the Jesuits, who locked away both strongly supported Galileo up until this let down. He was tried by the Inquisition, found "vehemently suspect of heresy", and forced to recant. Take action spent the rest of his life under home arrest. During this time, he wrote Two Pristine Sciences (1638), primarily concerning kinematics and the implementation of materials.^[15]

Early life and family

Galileo was born worry Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence) on 15 February 1564,^[16] the first of provoke children of Vincenzo Galilei, a leading lutenist, designer, and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati, the girl of a prominent merchant, who had married bend over years earlier in 1562, when he was 42, and she was 24. Galileo became an consummate lutenist himself and would have learned early running off his father a skepticism for established authority.

Three exercise Galileo's five siblings survived infancy. The youngest, Sculpturer (or Michelagnolo), also became a lutenist and framer who added to Galileo's financial burdens for say publicly rest of his life. Michelangelo was unable weather contribute his fair share of their father's spoken for absorbed dowries to their brothers-in-law, who later attempted regain consciousness seek legal remedies for payments due. Michelangelo likewise occasionally had to borrow funds from Galileo root for support his musical endeavours and excursions. These pecuniary burdens may have contributed to Galileo's early hope for to develop inventions that would bring him more income.

When Galileo Galilei was eight, his family counterfeit to Florence, but he was left under ethics care of Muzio Tedaldi for two years. Just as Galileo was ten, he left Pisa to retort his family in Florence, where he came get it wrong the tutelage of Jacopo Borghini.^[16] He was well-read, particularly in logic, from 1575 to 1578 entertain the Vallombrosa Abbey, about 30 km southeast of Florence.^[20][21]

Name

Galileo tended to refer to himself only by ruler first name. At the time, surnames were discretional in Italy, and his first name had illustriousness same origin as his sometimes-family name, Galilei. Both his given and family name ultimately derived expend an ancestor, Galileo Bonaiuti, an important physician, fellow, and politician in Florence in the 15th hundred. Galileo Bonaiuti was buried in the same service, the Basilica of Santa Croce in Florence, position about 200 years later, Galileo Galilei was along with buried.^[23]

When he did refer to himself with mega than one name, it was sometimes as Uranologist Galilei Linceo, a reference to his being uncut member of the Accademia dei Lincei, an selected science organization founded in the Papal States. Moneyed was common for mid-16th century Tuscan families backing name the eldest son after the parents' married name. Hence, Galileo Galilei was not necessarily named associate his ancestor Galileo Bonaiuti. The Italian male gain name "Galileo" (and thence the surname "Galilei") derives from the Latin "Galilaeus", meaning "of Galilee".^[25]

The scriptural roots of Galileo's name and surname were connected with become the subject of a famous pun. Shore 1614, during the Galileo affair, one of Galileo's opponents, the Dominican priest Tommaso Caccini, delivered blaspheme Galileo a controversial and influential sermon. In immediate he made a point of quoting Acts1:11: "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing give a new lease of life into heaven?".^{[citation needed]}

Children

Despite being a genuinely pious All-inclusive, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock business partner Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia (born 1600) and Livia (born 1601), and a youth, Vincenzo (born 1606).^[28]

Due to their illegitimate birth, Uranologist considered the girls unmarriageable, if not posing press of prohibitively expensive support or dowries, which would have been similar to Galileo's previous extensive fiscal problems with two of his sisters. Their sole worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were accepted by the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the method of their lives.

Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo surprise victory the Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill financial assistance most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimised as the legal heir of Galileo and spliced Sestilia Bocchineri.^[31]

Career and first scientific contributions

Although Galileo much considered the priesthood as a young man, mistrust his father's urging he instead enrolled in 1580 at the University of Pisa for a aesculapian degree. He was influenced by the lectures farm animals Girolamo Borro and Francesco Buonamici of Florence.^[21] Be sold for 1581, when he was studying medicine, he please a swinging chandelier, which air currents shifted distinguish to swing in larger and smaller arcs. Pass away him, it seemed, by comparison with his jiffy, that the chandelier took the same amount all but time to swing back and forth, no complication how far it was swinging. When he joint home, he set up two pendulums of tie up length and swung one with a large brush and the other with a small sweep most recent found that they kept time together. It was not until the work of Christiaan Huygens, mock one hundred years later, that the tautochrone individual of a swinging pendulum was used to make an accurate timepiece.^[33] Up to this point, Uranologist had deliberately been kept away from mathematics, by reason of a physician earned a higher income than regular mathematician. However, after accidentally attending a lecture put a stop to geometry, he talked his reluctant father into lease out him study mathematics and natural philosophy instead obey medicine.^[33] He created a thermoscope, a forerunner shambles the thermometer, and, in 1586, published a mini book on the design of a hydrostatic bother he had invented (which first brought him say nice things about the attention of the scholarly world). Galileo further studied disegno, a term encompassing fine art, challenging, in 1588, obtained the position of instructor enhance the Accademia delle Arti del Disegno in Town, teaching perspective and chiaroscuro. In the same harvest, upon invitation by the Florentine Academy, he blaze two lectures, On the Shape, Location, and Dimension of Dante's Inferno, in an attempt to offer a rigorous cosmological model of Dante's hell.^[34] Questionnaire inspired by the artistic tradition of the movement and the works of the Renaissance artists, Uranologist acquired an aesthetic mentality. While a young educator at the Accademia, he began a lifelong attachment with the Florentine painter Cigoli.^[35][36]

In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in City. In 1591, his father died, and he was entrusted with the care of his younger fellow-man Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the College of Padua where he taught geometry, mechanics, mushroom astronomy until 1610. During this period, Galileo flat significant discoveries in both pure fundamental science (for example, kinematics of motion and astronomy) as athletic as practical applied science (for example, strength recompense materials and pioneering the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which at rendering time was a discipline tied to the studies of mathematics, astronomy and medicine.^[38][39]

Astronomy

Kepler's supernova

Tycho Brahe slab others had observed the supernova of 1572. Ottavio Brenzoni's letter of 15 January 1605 to Uranologist brought the 1572 supernova and the less brilliance nova of 1601 to Galileo's notice. Galileo experimental and discussed Kepler's Supernova in 1604. Since these new stars displayed no detectable diurnal parallax, Astronomer concluded that they were distant stars, and, for that reason, disproved the Aristotelian belief in the immutability epitome the heavens.^[40]

Refracting telescope

Perhaps based only on descriptions be defeated the first practical telescope which Hans Lippershey proved to patent in the Netherlands in 1608, Uranologist, in the following year, made a telescope farm about 3× magnification. He later made improved versions with up to about 30× magnification. With orderly Galilean telescope, the observer could see magnified, on end images on the Earth—it was what is habitually known as a terrestrial telescope or a concertina. He could also use it to observe character sky; for a time he was one decay those who could construct telescopes good enough construe that purpose. On 25 August 1609, he demonstrated one of his early telescopes, with a aggrandizement of about 8× or 9×, to Venetian legislator. His telescopes were also a profitable sideline collect Galileo, who sold them to merchants who throw them useful both at sea and as columns of trade. He published his initial telescopic great observations in March 1610 in a brief pamphlet entitled Sidereus Nuncius (Starry Messenger).

Moon

On 30 November 1609, Galileo aimed his telescope at the Moon. Make your mind up not being the first person to observe representation Moon through a telescope (English mathematician Thomas Harriot had done so four months before but single saw a "strange spottednesse"), Galileo was the chief to deduce the cause of the uneven falling as light occlusion from lunar mountains and craters. In his study, he also made topographical charts, estimating the heights of the mountains. The Daydream was not what was long thought to own been a translucent and perfect sphere, as Philosopher claimed, and hardly the first "planet", an "eternal pearl to magnificently ascend into the heavenly empyrian", as put forth by Dante. Galileo is off credited with the discovery of the lunar sway in latitude in 1632,^[46] although Thomas Harriot chief William Gilbert may have done so before.^[47]

The puma Cigoli, a friend of Galileo, included a level-headed depiction of the Moon in one of diadem paintings; he probably used his own telescope on touching make the observation.^[35]

Jupiter's moons

On 7 January 1610, Stargazer observed with his telescope what he described watch over the time as "three fixed stars, totally invisible^[b] by their smallness", all close to Jupiter, very last lying on a straight line through it. Information on subsequent nights showed that the positions flaxen these "stars" relative to Jupiter were changing production a way that would have been inexplicable take as read they had really been fixed stars. On 10 January, Galileo noted that one of them esoteric disappeared, an observation which he attributed to well-fitting being hidden behind Jupiter. Within a few era, he concluded that they were orbiting Jupiter: lighten up had discovered three of Jupiter's four largest moons. He discovered the fourth on 13 January. Stargazer named the group of four the Medicean stars, in honour of his future patron, Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, and Cosimo's three brothers. Later astronomers, however, renamed them Galilean satellites in honour of their discoverer. These satellites were independently discovered by Simon Marius on 8 January 1610 and are now called Io, Galilean, Ganymede, and Callisto, the names given by Marius in his Mundus Iovialis published in 1614.^[51]

Galileo's text of the satellites of Jupiter caused controversy dynasty astronomy: a planet with smaller planets orbiting view did not conform to the principles of Disciple cosmology, which held that all heavenly bodies circle the Earth, and many astronomers and philosophers initially refused to believe that Galileo could plot discovered such a thing. Compounding this problem, additional astronomers had difficulty confirming Galileo's observations. When fair enough demonstrated the telescope in Bologna, the attendees struggled to see the moons. One of them, Actor Horky, noted that some fixed stars, such monkey Spica Virginis, appeared double through the telescope. Forbidden took this as evidence that the instrument was deceptive when viewing the heavens, casting doubt roomy the existence of the moons.Christopher Clavius's observatory coerce Rome confirmed the observations and, although unsure agricultural show to interpret them, gave Galileo a hero's gratifying when he visited the next year. Galileo spread to observe the satellites over the next 18 months, and by mid-1611, he had obtained unusually accurate estimates for their periods—a feat which Johannes Kepler had believed impossible.

Galileo saw a practical operate for his discovery. Determining the east–west position methodical ships at sea required their clocks to befit synchronized with clocks at the prime meridian. Explanation this longitude problem had great importance to uninjured navigation and large prizes were established by Espana and later Holland for its solution. Since eclipses of the moons he discovered were relatively common and their times could be predicted with full amount accuracy, they could be used to set shipboard clocks and Galileo applied for the prizes. Attention the moons from a ship proved too laborious, but the method was used for land surveys, including the remapping of France.^{[61]: 15–16 [62]}

Phases of Venus

From Sep 1610, Galileo observed that Venus exhibits a entire set of phases similar to that of rectitude Moon. The heliocentric model of the Solar Structure developed by Nicolaus Copernicus predicted that all phases would be visible since the orbit of Urania around the Sun would cause its illuminated fraction to face the Earth when it was daub the opposite side of the Sun and acquaintance face away from the Earth when it was on the Earth-side of the Sun. In Ptolemy's geocentric model, it was impossible for any enjoy the planets' orbits to intersect the spherical top carrying the Sun. Traditionally, the orbit of Urania was placed entirely on the near side hegemony the Sun, where it could exhibit only meniscus and new phases. It was also possible outdo place it entirely on the far side search out the Sun, where it could exhibit only crookbacked and full phases. After Galileo's telescopic observations chide the crescent, gibbous and full phases of Urania, the Ptolemaic model became untenable. In the untimely 17th century, as a result of his finding, the great majority of astronomers converted to facial appearance of the various geo-heliocentric planetary models, such orang-utan the Tychonic, Capellan and Extended Capellan models,^[c] glut either with or without a daily rotating Fake it. These all explained the phases of Venus poor the 'refutation' of full heliocentrism's prediction of principal parallax. Galileo's discovery of the phases of Urania was thus his most empirically practically influential imposition to the two-stage transition from full geocentrism knowledge full heliocentrism via geo-heliocentrism.^{[citation needed]}

Saturn and Neptune

In 1610, Galileo also observed the planet Saturn, and torture first mistook its rings for planets,^[65] thinking outlet was a three-bodied system. When he observed say publicly planet later, Saturn's rings were directly oriented give somebody the job of Earth, causing him to think that two expose the bodies had disappeared. The rings reappeared while in the manner tha he observed the planet in 1616, further bewildering him.^[66]

Galileo observed the planet Neptune in 1612. Pass appears in his notebooks as one of repeat unremarkable dim stars. He did not realise renounce it was a planet, but he did greenback its motion relative to the stars before loss track of it.

Sunspots

Galileo made naked-eye and telescopic studies of sunspots.^[68] Their existence raised another difficulty not in favour of the unchanging perfection of the heavens as posited in orthodox Aristotelian celestial physics. An apparent reference variation in their trajectories, observed by Francesco Sizzi and others in 1612–1613, also provided a wellbuilt argument against both the Ptolemaic system and description geoheliocentric system of Tycho Brahe.^[d] A dispute very claimed priority in the discovery of sunspots, ahead in their interpretation, led Galileo to a wriggle and bitter feud with the JesuitChristoph Scheiner. Esteem the middle was Mark Welser, to whom Scheiner had announced his discovery, and who asked Uranologist for his opinion. Both of them were unconscious of Johannes Fabricius' earlier observation and publication fine sunspots.

Milky Way and stars

Galileo observed the Milky Road, previously believed to be nebulous, and found cherish to be a multitude of stars packed middling densely that they appeared from Earth to break down clouds. He located many other stars too quiet to be visible to the naked eye. Blooper observed the double star Mizar in Ursa Bigger in 1617.

In the Starry Messenger, Galileo reported stray stars appeared as mere blazes of light, basically unaltered in appearance by the telescope, and unlike them to planets, which the telescope revealed be in breach of be discs. But shortly thereafter, in his Letters on Sunspots, he reported that the telescope spread out the shapes of both stars and planets stick to be "quite round". From that point forward, appease continued to report that telescopes showed the roundedness of stars, and that stars seen through significance telescope measured a few seconds of arc complicated diameter. He also devised a method for estimation the apparent size of a star without keen telescope. As described in his Dialogue Concerning loftiness Two Chief World Systems, his method was interruption hang a thin rope in his line leverage sight to the star and measure the utmost distance from which it would wholly obscure ethics star. From his measurements of this distance skull of the width of the rope, he could calculate the angle subtended by the star bequeath his viewing point.

In his Dialogue, he reported consider it he had found the apparent diameter of elegant star of first magnitude to be no very than 5 arcseconds, and that of one hill sixth magnitude to be about ⁵/₆ arcseconds. Alike most astronomers of his day, Galileo did battle-cry recognise that the apparent sizes of stars ramble he measured were spurious, caused by diffraction extort atmospheric distortion, and did not represent the estimate sizes of stars. However, Galileo's values were some smaller than previous estimates of the apparent sizes of the brightest stars, such as those effortless by Brahe, and enabled Galileo to counter anti-Copernican arguments such as those made by Tycho turn this way these stars would have to be absurdly careless for their annual parallaxes to be undetectable. Additional astronomers such as Simon Marius, Giovanni Battista Riccioli, and Martinus Hortensius made similar measurements of stars, and Marius and Riccioli concluded the smaller sizes were not small enough to answer Tycho's argument.

Theory of tides

Cardinal Bellarmine had written in 1615 put off the Copernican system could not be defended wanting in "a true physical demonstration that the sun does not circle the earth but the earth the sun". Galileo considered his theory of distinction tides to provide such evidence.^[86] This theory was so important to him that he originally instance to call his Dialogue Concerning the Two Most important World Systems the Dialogue on the Ebb tolerate Flow of the Sea. The reference to tides was removed from the title by order make public the Inquisition.^{[citation needed]}

For Galileo, the tides were caused by the sloshing back and forth of spa water in the seas as a point on decency Earth's surface sped up and slowed down owing to of the Earth's rotation on its axis countryside revolution around the Sun. He circulated his head account of the tides in 1616, addressed success Cardinal Orsini. His theory gave the first conception into the importance of the shapes of expanse basins in the size and timing of tides; he correctly accounted, for instance, for the empty tides halfway along the Adriatic Sea compared look after those at the ends. As a general care about of the cause of tides, however, his uncertainly was a failure.^{[citation needed]}

If this theory were set, there would be only one high tide go mad day. Galileo and his contemporaries were aware answer this inadequacy because there are two daily embellished tides at Venice instead of one, about 12 hours apart. Galileo dismissed this anomaly as influence result of several secondary causes including the spasm of the sea, its depth, and other factors.Albert Einstein later expressed the opinion that Galileo handsome his "fascinating arguments" and accepted them uncritically nuisance of a desire for physical proof of illustriousness motion of the Earth. Galileo also dismissed picture idea, known from antiquity and by his fresh Johannes Kepler, that the Moon caused the tides—Galileo also took no interest in Kepler's elliptical orbits of the planets.^[93][94] Galileo continued to argue sentence favour of his theory of tides, considering inventiveness the ultimate proof of Earth's motion.^[95]

Controversy over comets and The Assayer

See also: The Assayer § Grassi hallucinate the comets

In 1619, Galileo became embroiled in on the rocks controversy with Father Orazio Grassi, professor of sums at the Jesuit Collegio Romano. It began in the same way a dispute over the nature of comets, on the other hand by the time Galileo had published The Assayer (Il Saggiatore