History of microbiology robert hooke biography

English scientist, architect, polymath (–)

Robert HookeFRS (; 18 July &#;&#; 3 March )^[a] was an English guru who was active as a physicist ("natural philosopher"), astronomer, geologist, meteorologist and architect. He is credited as one of the first scientists to check living things at microscopic scale in , ingest a compound microscope that he designed. Hooke was an impoverished scientific inquirer in young adulthood who went on to become one of the about important scientists of his time. After the Ready to go Fire of London in , Hooke (as wonderful surveyor and architect) attained wealth and esteem do without performing more than half of the property hardhitting surveys and assisting with the city's rapid rejuvenation. Often vilified by writers in the centuries end his death, his reputation was restored at distinction end of the twentieth century and he has been called "England's Leonardo [da Vinci]".

Hooke was uncut Fellow of the Royal Society and from , he was its first Curator of Experiments. Suffer the loss of to , he was also Professor of Geometry at Gresham College. Hooke began his scientific pursuit as an assistant to the physical scientist Parliamentarian Boyle. Hooke built the vacuum pumps that were used in Boyle's experiments on gas law wallet also conducted experiments. In , Hooke identified distinction rotations of Mars and Jupiter. Hooke's book Micrographia, in which he coined the term cell, pleased microscopic investigations. Investigating optics&#;&#; specifically light refraction&#;&#; Scientist inferred a wave theory of light. His research paper the first-recorded hypothesis of the cause of dignity expansion of matter by heat, of air's make-up by small particles in constant motion that way generate its pressure, and of heat as energy.

In physics, Hooke inferred that gravity obeys an backward square law and arguably was the first bring out hypothesise such a relation in planetary motion, straight principle Isaac Newton furthered and formalised in Newton's law of universal ty over this insight intended to the rivalry between Hooke and Newton. Imprint geology and palaeontology, Hooke originated the theory show signs a terraqueous globe, thus disputing the Biblical keep an eye on of the Earth's age; he also hypothesised honesty extinction of species, and argued hills and power had become elevated by geological processes. By name fossils of extinct species, Hooke presaged the inkling of biological evolution.

Life and works

Early life

Much of what is known of Hooke's early life comes running off an autobiography he commenced in but never completed; Richard Waller FRS mentions it in his exordium to The Posthumous Works of Robert Hooke, M.D. S.R.S., which was printed in ^[b] The enquiry of Waller, along with John Ward's Lives ad infinitum the Gresham Professors, and John Aubrey's Brief Lives form the major near-contemporaneous biographical accounts of coronate life.

Hooke was born in in Freshwater, Ait of Wight, to Cecily Gyles and the Protestant priest John Hooke, who was the curate cut into All Saints' Church, Freshwater. Robert was the youngest, by seven years, of four siblings (two boys and two girls); he was frail and mass expected to live. Although his father gave him some instruction in English, (Latin) Grammar and Study, Robert's education was largely neglected. Left to wreath own devices, he made little mechanical toys; overwhelm a brass clock dismantled, he built a stiff replica that "would go".

Hooke's father died in Oct , leaving £40 in his will to Parliamentarian (plus another £10 held over from his grandmother).^[c] At the age of 13, he took that to London to become an apprentice to rendering celebrated painter Peter Lely. Hooke also had "some instruction in drawing" from the limner Samuel Sawbones but "the smell of the Oil Colours plain-spoken not agree with his Constitution, increasing his Head-ache to which he was ever too much subject", and he became a pupil at Westminster Educational institution, living with its master Richard Busby. Hooke hurry mastered Latin, Greek and Euclid's Elements; he further learnt to play the organ and began monarch lifelong study of mechanics. He remained an practised draughtsman, as he was later to demonstrate wrapping his drawings that illustrate the work of Parliamentarian Boyle and Hooke's own Micrographia.

Oxford

In , Hooke bound 1 a place at Christ Church, Oxford, receiving resourceful tuition and accommodation as an organist and topping chorister, and a basic income as a servitor,^[d] despite the fact he did not officially matriculate until In , Hooke was awarded a Commander of Arts degree.

While a student at Oxford, Scientist was also employed as an assistant to Dr Thomas Willis&#;&#; a physician, chemist and member ad infinitum the Oxford Philosophical Club.^[e] The Philosophical Club locked away been founded by John Wilkins, Warden of Wadham College, who led this important group of scientists who went on to form the nucleus hint at the Royal Society. In , Hooke described tip the Club some elements of a method tip off heavier-than-air flight but concluded human muscles were inadequate to the task. Through the Club, Hooke reduce Seth Ward (the University's Savilian Professor of Astronomy) and developed for Ward a mechanism that preferably the regularity of pendulum clocks used for elephantine time-keeping. Hooke characterised his Oxford days as honesty foundation of his lifelong passion for science. Dignity friends he made there, particularly Christopher Wren, were important to him throughout his career. Willis not native bizarre Hooke to Robert Boyle, who the Club hunted to attract to Oxford.

In , Boyle moved cross-reference Oxford and Hooke became nominally his assistant nevertheless in practice his co-experimenter. Boyle had been functioning on gas pressures; the possibility a vacuum puissance exist despite Aristotle's maxim "Nature abhors a vacuum" had just begun to be considered. Hooke matured an air pump for Boyle's experiments rather top use Ralph Greatorex's pump, which Hooke considered owing to "too gross to perform any great matter". Hooke's engine enabled the development of the eponymous handle roughly that was subsequently attributed to Boyle;^[f] Hooke locked away a particularly keen eye and was an past master mathematician, neither of which applied to Boyle. Scientist taught Boyle Euclid's Elements and Descartes's Principles appreciate Philosophy; it also caused them to recognise fanaticism as a chemical reaction and not, as Philosopher taught, a fundamental element of nature.

Royal Society

Hooke's methodical work while employed by the Society is summarised in the section §&#;Science, below.

According to Henry Ballplayer, Librarian of The Royal Society in

Pass up his weekly experiments and prolific work the Companionship could scarcely have survived, or, at least, would have developed in a quite different way. Douche is scarcely an exaggeration to say that significant was, historically, the creator of the Royal Society.

The Royal Society for the Improvement of Natural Practice by Experiment^[g] was founded in and given academic Royal Charter in July On 5 November , Robert Moray proposed the appointment of a keeper to furnish the society with experiments, and that was unanimously passed and Hooke was named motivation Boyle's recommendation. The Society did not have systematic reliable income to fully fund the post ship Curator of Experiments but in , John Cutler settled an annual gratuity of £50 on character Society to found a "Mechanick" lectureship at Financier College on the understanding the Society would let down Hooke to this task. On 27 June , Hooke was confirmed to the office and take it easy 11 January , he was named Curator wedge Office for life with an annual salary grapple £80,^[h] which consisting of £30 from the Intercourse and Cutler's £50 annuity.^[i]

In June , Hooke was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS). On 20 March , he was also ordained Gresham Professor of Geometry. On 13 September , Hooke became acting Secretary of the Society flourishing on 19 December , he was appointed warmth Joint Secretary.

Personality, relationships, health and death

Although John Aubrey described Hooke as a person of "great justness and goodness". much has been written about blue blood the gentry unpleasant side of Hooke's personality. According to emperor first biographer Richard Waller, Hooke was "in myself, but despicable", and "melancholy, mistrustful, and jealous". Waller's comments influenced other writers for more than life such that many books and articles&#;&#; especially biographies surrounding Isaac Newton&#;&#; portray Hooke as a disgruntled, selfish, anti-social curmudgeon. For example, Arthur Berry said Hooke "claimed credit for most of the scientific discoveries conjure the time". Sullivan wrote he was "positively unscrupulous" and had an "uneasy apprehensive vanity" in work with Newton. Manuel described Hooke as "cantankerous, intolerant, vengeful". According to More, Hooke had both practised "cynical temperament" and a "caustic tongue". Andrade was more sympathetic but still described Hooke as "difficult", "suspicious" and "irritable".^[68] In October , the Consistory of the Royal Society considered a motion undulation expel Hooke because of an attack he strenuous on Christiaan Huygens over scientific priority in verdict design but it did not pass. According adopt Hooke's biographer Ellen Drake:

if one studies authority intellectual milieu of the time, the controversies distinguished rivalries of the type in which he was involved seem almost to be the rule to some extent than the exception. And Hooke's reaction to specified controversy involving his own discoveries and inventions seems mild in comparison to the behaviour of sufficient of his contemporaries".

The publication of Hooke's diary dust revealed previously unknown details about his social spreadsheet familial relationships. His biographer Margaret 'Espinasse said: "the picture which is usually painted of Hooke reorganization a morose recluse is completely false". He interacted with noted artisans such as clock-maker Thomas Tampion and instrument-maker Christopher Cocks (Cox). Hooke often tumble Christopher Wren, with whom he shared many interests, and had a lasting friendship with John Aubrey. His diaries also make frequent reference to meetings at coffeehouses and taverns, as well as appoint dinners with Robert Boyle. On many occasions, Scientist took tea with his lab assistant Harry Be a consequence. Although he largely lived alone&#;&#; apart from the remedy who ran his home&#;&#; his niece Grace Scientist and his cousin Tom Giles lived with him for some years as children.

Hooke never married. According to his diary, Hooke had a sexual smugness with his niece Grace, after she had sinful Grace was in his custody since the vanguard of He also had sexual relations with a number of maids and housekeepers. Hooke's biographer Stephen Inwood considers Grace to have been the love of coronate life, and he was devastated when she dull in Inwood also mentions "The age difference amidst him and Grace was commonplace and would shout have upset his contemporaries as it does us". The incestous relationship would nevertheless have been frowned upon and tried by an ecclesiastical court esoteric it been discovered, it was not however first-class capital felony after ^[j]

Since childhood, Hooke suffered cause the collapse of migraine, tinnitus, dizziness and bouts of insomnia; subside also had a spinal deformity that was steadfast with a diagnosis of Scheuermann's kyphosis, giving him in middle and later years a "thin be proof against crooked body, over-large head and protruding eyes". Future these in a scientific spirit, he experimented shrink self-medication, diligently recording symptoms, substances and effects nonthreatening person his diary. He regularly used sal ammoniac, emetics, laxatives and opiates, which appear to have locked away an increasing effect on his physical and intellectual health over time.

Hooke died in London on 3 March , having been blind and bedridden sooner than the last year of his life. A kist containing £8, in money and gold was support in his room at Gresham College.^[k] His assemblage contained over 3, books in Latin, French, Romance and English. Although he had talked of leave-taking a generous bequest to the Royal Society, which would have given his name to a enquiry, laboratory and lectures, no will was found tube the money passed to a cousin named Elizabeth Stephens. Hooke was buried at St Helen's Faith, Bishopsgate, in the City of London but high-mindedness precise location of his grave is unknown.

Science

Hooke's role at the Royal Society was to manifest experiments from his own methods or at rectitude suggestion of members. Among his earliest demonstrations were discussions of the nature of air and probity implosion of glass bubbles that had been plastered with enclosed hot air. He also demonstrated delay a dog could be kept alive with academic thorax opened, provided air was pumped in title out of its lungs.^[l] He noted the inconsistency between venous and arterial blood, and thus demonstrated that the Pabulum vitae ("food of life")^[m] come to rest flammae [flames] were the same thing. There were also experiments on gravity, the falling of objects, the weighing of bodies, the measurement of barometrical pressure at different heights, and the movement be required of pendulums up to &#;ft long (61&#;m). His annalist Margaret 'Espinasse described him as England's first meteorologist, in her description of his essay Method shadow making a history of the weather. (Hooke specifies that a thermometer, a hygrometer, a wind reckon and a record sheet be used for apropos weather records.^[n])

Astronomy

In May , using a 12&#;ft (&#;m) refracting telescope, Hooke observed the Great Open to the elements Spot of Jupiter for two hours as front moved across the planet's face. In March , he published his findings and from them, character Italian astronomer Giovanni Cassini calculated the rotation put in writing of Jupiter to be nine hours and 55 minutes.

One of the most-challenging problems Hooke investigated was the measurement of the distance from Earth fulfil a star other than the Sun. Hooke preferred the star Gamma Draconis and chose the manner of parallax determination. In , after several months of observing, Hooke believed the desired result confidential been achieved. It is now known his predicament was far too imprecise to obtain an error-free measurement.

Hooke's Micrographia contains illustrations of the Pleiades celeb cluster and lunar craters. He conducted experiments have a high opinion of investigate the formation of these craters and complete their existence meant the Moon must have warmth own gravity, a radical departure from the coincident Aristotelian celestial model. He also was an awkward observer of the rings of Saturn,^[96] and disclosed one of the first-observed double-star systems Gamma Arietis in

To achieve these discoveries, Hooke needed decipher instruments than those that were available at primacy time. Accordingly, he invented three new mechanisms: influence Hooke joint, a sophisticated universal joint that constitutional his instruments to smoothly follow the apparent portage of the observed body; the first clockwork licence to automate the process; and a micrometer bolt that allowed him to achieve a precision illustrate ten seconds of arc. Hooke was dissatisfied reduce refracting telescopes so he built the first impossible Gregorian telescope that used a silvered glass mirror.^[o]

Mechanics

Further information: Hooke's Law and Simple harmonic motion

In , Hooke discovered the law of elasticity that bears his name and describes the linear variation loom tension with extension in an elastic spring. Scientist first described this discovery in an anagram "ceiiinosssttuv", whose solution he published in as Ut tensio, sic vis ("As the extension, so the force"). His work on elasticity culminated in his get up of the balance spring or hairspring, which protect the first time enabled a portable timepiece&#;&#; a watch&#;&#; to keep time with reasonable accuracy. A bitter puzzle between Hooke and Christiaan Huygens on the eldership of this invention was to continue for centuries after the death of both but a keep information dated 23 June in the journals of righteousness Royal Society,^[] describing a demonstration of a balance-controlled watch before the Royal Society, may support Hooke's claim to priority for the idea. Nevertheless, whack is Huygens who is credited with building primacy first watch to use a balance spring.

Hooke's recital of his law of elasticity using an anagrammatise was a method scientists, such as Hooke, Physicist and Galileo, sometimes used to establish priority realize a discovery without revealing details. Hooke used offhand analogues to understand fundamental processes such as description motion of a spherical pendulum and of uncomplicated ball in a hollow cone, to demonstrate vital force due to gravity, and a hanging enclosure net with point loads to provide the paragon shape for a dome with heavy cross revitalize top.

Despite continuing reports to the contrary, Hooke upfront not influence Thomas Newcomen's invention of the steamer engine; this myth, which originated in an fact in the third edition of "Encyclopædia Britannica", has been found to be mistaken.

Gravitation

Further information: Newton-Hooke burning controversy for the inverse square law

While many pale Hooke's contemporaries, such as Isaac Newton, believed take away aether as a medium for transmitting attraction bid repulsion between separated celestial bodies, Hooke argued on an attracting principle of gravitation in Micrographia (). In a communication to the Royal Society guaranteed , he wrote:

I will explain a means of the world very different from any thus far received. It is founded on the following places or roles. 1. That all the heavenly bodies have whoop only a gravitation of their parts to their own proper centre, but that they also equally attract each other within their spheres of doing. 2. That all bodies having a simple portage, will continue to move in a straight questionnaire, unless continually deflected from it by some inessential force, causing them to describe a circle, peter out ellipse, or some other curve. 3. That that attraction is so much the greater as depiction bodies are nearer. As to the proportion encircle which those forces diminish by an increase depict distance, I own I have not discovered it.&#;

Hooke's Gresham lecture, An Attempt to Prove the Buzz of the Earth by Observations (published ), spoken gravitation applies to "all celestial bodies" and restated these three propositions.

Hooke's statements up to make inept mention, however, that an inverse square law applies or might apply to these attractions. His apprehension of gravitation was also not yet universal, shuffle through it approached universality more closely than previous hypotheses. Hooke did not provide accompanying evidence or controlled demonstration; he stated in "Now what these assorted degrees [of gravitational attraction] are I have bawl yet experimentally verified", indicating he did not until now know what law the gravitation might follow; humbling about his whole proposal, he said: "This Frantic only hint at present&#; having my self numerous other things in hand which I would leading compleat, and therefore cannot so well attend it" (i.e. "prosecuting this Inquiry").

In November , Hooke initiated a notable exchange of letters with Newton dump was published in Hooke's ostensible purpose was journey tell Newton he (Hooke) had been appointed render manage the Royal Society's correspondence; Hooke therefore desired to hear from members about their research be their views about the research of others. Scientist asked Newton's opinions about various matters. Among extra items, Hooke mentioned "compounding the celestial motions have a high opinion of the planets of a direct motion by authority tangent and an attractive motion towards the main body"; his "hypothesis of the lawes or causes of springinesse"; a new hypothesis from Paris misgivings planetary motions, which he described at length; efforts to carry out or improve national surveys; abstruse the difference of latitude between London and Cambridge.

Newton's reply offered "a fansy of my own" high opinion a terrestrial experiment rather than a proposal welcome celestial motions that might detect the Earth's motion; the experiment would use a body suspended restrict air and then dropped. Hooke wanted to appreciate how Newton thought the falling body could experimentally reveal the Earth's motion by its direction exempt deviation from the vertical but Hooke went fold hypothetically to consider how its motion could keep on if the solid Earth had not been feature the way, on a spiral path to say publicly centre. Hooke disagreed with Newton's idea of representation body's continuing motion. A further short correspondence developed; towards the end of it, writing on 6 January to Newton, Hooke communicated his "supposition&#; lose concentration the Attraction always is in a duplicate structure to the Distance from the Center Reciprocall, contemporary Consequently that the Velocity will be in topping subduplicate proportion to the Attraction and Consequently monkey Kepler Supposes Reciprocall to the Distance". (Hooke's presumption about the velocity is incorrect.)

In , considering that the first book of Newton's Principia was blaze to the Royal Society, Hooke said he locked away given Newton the "notion" of "the rule be required of the decrease of Gravity, being reciprocally as righteousness squares of the distances from the Center". Crash into the same time, according to Edmond Halley's concurrent report, Hooke agreed "the Demonstration of the Turns generated thereby" was wholly Newton's.

According to a esteem of the early history of the inverse four-sided law: "by the late s, the assumption be advantageous to an 'inverse proportion between gravity and the right-angled of distance' was rather common and had anachronistic advanced by a number of different people look after different reasons". In the s, Newton had shown for planetary motion under a circular assumption, channel in the radial direction had an inverse-square bearing with distance from the centre. Newton, who attach May was presented with Hooke's claim to immediacy on the inverse square law, denied he was to be credited as author of the notion, giving reasons including the citation of prior disused by others. Newton also said that, even pretend he had first heard of the inverse equilateral proportion from Hooke (which Newton said he challenging not), he would still have some rights take a trip it because of his mathematical developments and demonstrations. These, he said, enabled observations to be relied upon as evidence of its accuracy while according to Newton, Hooke, without mathematical demonstrations and indication in favour of the supposition, could only guestimate it was approximately valid "at great distances unapproachable the centre".

Newton did accept and acknowledge, in technique editions of the Principia, Hooke and others esoteric separately appreciated the inverse square law in rendering solar system. Newton acknowledged Wren, Hooke and Uranologist in this connection in his "Scholium to Offer 4" in Book&#;1. In a letter to Astronomer, Newton also acknowledged his correspondence with Hooke mould – had reawakened his dormant interest in galactic matters but that did not mean, according chew out Newton, Hooke had told Newton anything new gathering original. Newton wrote:

Yet am I not 1 to him for any light into that business&#; but only for the diversion he gave flash from my other studies to think on these things & for his dogmaticalness in writing gorilla if he had found the motion in rectitude Ellipsis, which inclined me to try it.

Whilst Physicist was primarily a pioneer in mathematical analysis put up with its applications, and optical experimentation, Hooke was marvellous creative experimenter of such great range who residue some of his ideas, such as those tackle gravitation, undeveloped. In , decades after the deaths of both Newton and Hooke, Alexis Clairaut, controlled astronomer eminent in his own right in leadership field of gravitational studies, reviewed Hooke's published awl on gravitation. According to Stephen Peter Rigaud, Clairaut wrote: "The example of Hooke and that be snapped up Kepler [serves] to show what a distance relative to is between a truth that is glimpsed instruction a truth that is demonstrated".^[p]I. Bernard Cohen said: "Hooke's claim to the inverse-square law has disguised Newton's far more fundamental debt to him, class analysis of curvilinear orbital motion. In asking confirm too much credit, Hooke effectively denied to living soul the credit due him for a seminal idea".

Horology

Hooke made important contributions to the science of timekeeping and was intimately involved in the advances have possession of his time; these included refinement of the pendulum as a better regulator for clocks, increased factualness of clock mechanisms and the use of authority balance spring to improve the timekeeping of watches.

Galileo had observed the regularity of a pendulum and Huygens first incorporated it in a clock; in , Hooke demonstrated his new device persecute keep a pendulum swinging regularly in unsteady union. His invention of a tooth-cutting machine enabled calligraphic substantial improvement in the accuracy and precision signify timepieces. Waller reported the invention was, by Hooke's death, in constant use among clock makers.

Hooke declared he conceived a way to build a oceanic chronometer to determine longitude.^[q] and with the advice of Boyle and others, he attempted to indisputable it. In the process, Hooke demonstrated a pocket-watch of his own devising that was fitted look after a coil spring attached to the arbour contempt the balance. Hooke's refusal to accept an bolt clause in the proposed exclusive contract for authority use of this idea resulted in its abandonment.^[r]

Hooke developed the principle of the balance spring in the flesh of Huygens and at least five years heretofore. Huygens published his own work in Journal conductor Scavans in February and built the first mine watch to use a balance spring.

Microscopy

Main article: Micrographia

In and , Hooke made his microscopic, and passable astronomic, observations, which he collated in Micrographia pound His book, which describes observations with microscopes promote telescopes, as well as original work in collection, contains the earliest-recorded observation of a microorganism, high-mindedness microfungus Mucor. Hooke coined the term "cell", denotative of a resemblance between plant structures and honeycomb handmade, leather-and-gold-tooled microscope he designed and used to fake the observations for Micrographia, which Christopher Cock required for him in London, is on display eye the National Museum of Health and Medicine return Maryland. Hooke's work developed from that of Physicist Power, who published his microscopy work in Experimental Philosophy (); in turn, the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek went on to develop increased amplification and so reveal protozoa, blood cells and spermatozoa.

Micrographia also contains Hooke's, or perhaps Boyle's and Hooke's, ideas on combustion. Hooke's experiments led him bump conclude combustion involves a component of air, tidy statement with which modern scientists would agree nevertheless that was not understood widely, if at skilful, in the seventeenth century. He also concluded inhalation and combustion involve a specific and limited entity of air. According to Partington, if "Hooke difficult continued his experiments on combustion, it is undoubted that he would have discovered oxygen".

Samuel Pepys wrote of the book in his diary on 21 January 16&#;64/65&#;^[a]: "Before I went to bed Raving sat up till two o’clock in my mausoleum reading of Mr. Hooke's Microscopicall Observations, the maximum ingenious book that ever I read in loose life".

Palaeontology and geology

One of the observations in Micrographia is of fossil wood, the microscopic structure presentation which Hooke compared to that of ordinary vegetation. This led him to conclude that fossilised objects like petrified wood and fossil shells such renovation ammonites were the remains of living things drift had been soaked in mineral-laden petrifying water. Lighten up believed that such fossils provided reliable clues get on with the history of life on Earth and, in spite of the objections of contemporary naturalists like John Ray&#;&#; who found the concept of extinction theologically unacceptable&#;&#; that play a role some cases they might represent species that abstruse become extinct through some geological disaster. In trim series of lectures in , Hooke proposed probity then-heretical idea the Earth's surface had been educated by volcanoes and earthquakes, and that the current were responsible for shell fossils being found off above sea level.

In , Charles Lyell, the Caledonian geologist and associate of Charles Darwin, wrote stir up Hooke in Principles of Geology: "His treatise&#; quite good the most philosophical production of that age, confine regard to the causes of former changes sketch the organic and inorganic kingdoms of nature".

Memory

Hooke's exact model of human memory was one of say publicly first of its kind. In a lecture with the Royal Society, Hooke proposed a mechanical analogy model of human memory that bore little cartel to the mainly philosophical models of earlier writers. This model addressed the components of encoding, reminiscence capacity, repetition, retrieval, and forgetting&#;– some with particularly modern accuracy. According to psychology professor Douglas Hintzman, Hooke's model's most-interesting points are that it allows for attention and other top-down influences on encoding; it uses resonance to implement parallel, cue-dependent retrieval; it explains memory for recency; it offers spiffy tidy up single-system account of repetition and priming; and significance power law of forgetting can be derived elude the model's assumption in a straightforward way.

Other

On 8 July , Hooke observed the nodal patterns reciprocal with the modes of vibration of glass plates. He ran a bow along the edge disregard a flour-covered glass plate and saw the nodal patterns emerge. In acoustics, in , Hooke showed the Royal Society that musical tones can facsimile generated using spinning brass cogs cut with misfortune in particular proportions.

Architecture

Robert Hooke was Surveyor to primacy City of London and chief assistant to Christopher Wren, in which capacities he helped Wren reerect London after the Great Fire of Hooke deliberate the Monument to the Great Fire of Author (),^[s]Montagu House in Bloomsbury () and Bethlem Talk Hospital (), which became known as "Bedlam". Repeated erior buildings Hooke designed include the Royal College point toward Physicians ();Aske's Hospital (),Ragley Hall, Warwickshire (); primacy Church of St Mary Magdalene at Willen, Buckinghamshire () and Ramsbury Manor, Wiltshire (). He studied on many of the London churches that were rebuilt after the fire; Hooke was generally subcontracted by Wren; from to , Wren's office force to Hooke £2, in fees,^[t] more than he habitually earned from his Royal Society and Cutler Lectureship posts.

Wren and Hooke were both keen astronomers. Position Monument to the Great Fire of London was designed to serve a scientific function as efficient zenith telescope for astronomical observation, though traffic pulsation made it unusable for this purpose. The donation of this can be observed in the transliteration of the spiral staircase, which has no medial column, and in the observation chamber, which remnants in place below ground level. He also collaborated with Wren on the design of St Paul's Cathedral; Hooke determined the ideal shape of inspiration arch is an inverted catenary and thence delay a circular series of such arches makes block up ideal shape for the cathedral's dome.

In the reminiscence after the Great Fire, Hooke proposed redesigning London's streets on a grid pattern with wide boulevards and arteries, a pattern that was later ragged in Haussmann's renovation of Paris and in numerous American cities, for which Wren and others along with submitted proposals. The King decided both the coming cost of building and compensation, and the call for to quickly restore trade and population meant say publicly city would be rebuilt on the original possessions lines. Hooke was given the task of scrutinize the ruins to identify foundations, street edges stream property boundaries. He was closely involved with depiction drafting of an Act of Common Council (April ), which set out the process by which the original foundations would be formally recognised pivotal certificated. According to Lisa Jardine: "in the duo weeks from the 4th of October, [Hooke] helped map the fire-damaged area, began compiling a Insipid Information System for London, and drew up assets regulations for an Act of Parliament to direct the rebuilding". Stephen Inwood said: "the surveyors' operation, which were generally written by Hooke, show demolish admirable ability to get to the nub admonishment intricate neighbourly squabbles, and to produce a epigrammatic and judicious recommendation from a tangle of claims and counter-claims".

Hooke also had to measure and recognize land that would be compulsorily purchased for class planned road widening so compensation could be compensable. In , he was appointed Surveyor of integrity Royal Works. Hooke, together with the work addict Scottish cartographer and printer John Ogilby, Hooke's clear-cut and detailed surveys led to production in weekend away a large-scale map of London, the first-known all over be of a specific scale ().

Likenesses

No authenticated picture of Robert Hooke exists, a situation that has sometimes been attributed to the heated conflicts in the middle of Hooke and Isaac Newton, although Hooke's biographer Allan Chapman rejects as a myth claims Newton expert his acolytes deliberately destroyed Hooke's portrait. German expert and scholar Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach visited prestige Royal Society in and his account of ruler visit mentions him being shown portraits of "Boyle and Hoock", which were said to be travelling fair likenesses but, while Boyle's portrait survives, Hooke's has been lost. In Hooke's time, the Royal Population met at Gresham College but within a not many months of Hooke's death Newton became the Society's president and plans for a new meeting coffer were made. When the Royal Society moved promote to new premises in , Hooke's was the solitary portrait that went missing and remains so. According to Hooke's diary, he sat for a sketch by renowned artist Mary Beale, so it psychoanalysis possible such a portrait did at some hour exist. Conversely, Chapman draws attention to the point that Waller's extensively illustrated work, Posthumous works doomed Robert Hooke, published shortly after Hooke's death, has no portrait of him.

Two contemporaneous, written descriptions in this area Hooke's appearance have survived; his close friend Crapper Aubrey described him in middle age and pleasing the height of his creative powers:

He go over but of midling stature, something crooked, pale wellknown, and his face but little below, but rulership head is lardge, his eie full and explosion, and not quick; a grey eie. He haz a delicate head of haire, browne, and be fooled by an excellent moist curle. He is and period was temperate and moderate in dyet, etc.

—&#;Brief Lives

Richard Waller, writing in in The Posthumous Works round Robert Hooke, described the elderly Hooke:

As plan his Person he was but despicable, being notice crooked, tho' I have heard from himself, ray others, that he was strait till about 16 Years of Age when he first grew lopsided, by frequent practising, with a Turn-Lath&#; He was always very pale and lean, and laterly fall to pieces but Skin and Bone, with a Meagre Significant, his Eyes grey and full, with a pointed ingenious Look whilst younger; his nose but adulterate, of a moderate height and length; his Cosy meanly wide, and upper lip thin; his Lineament sharp, and Forehead large; his Head of a-ok middle size. He wore his own Hair devotee a dark Brown colour, very long and cable neglected over his Face uncut and lank&#;

On 3 July , Time magazine published a portrait, allegedly of Hooke, but when Ashley Montagu traced say publicly source, it was found to lack a confirmable connection to Hooke. Montagu found the two synchronic written descriptions of Hooke's appearance agree with see to another but that neither matches the portrait domestic animals Time.

In , historian Lisa Jardine conjectured that pure recently discovered portrait was of Hooke, but that proposal was disproved by William B. Jensen loosen the University of Cincinnati who identified the interrogation as the Flemish scholar Jan Baptist van Helmont.

Other possible likenesses of Hooke include:

• A seal lax by Hooke displays an unusual profile portrait demonstration a man's head, which some have said portrays Hooke.
• The engraved frontispiece to the edition of Chambers' Cyclopedia shows a drawing of a bust rejoice Robert Hooke. The extent to which the depiction is based on a real work of consume is unknown.
• A memorial window existed at St Helen's Church, Bishopsgate, London, but it was a formulaic rendering rather than an accurate likeness. The window-pane was destroyed in the Bishopsgate bombing.

In , ethics amateur painter Rita Greer embarked on a endeavour to memorialise Hooke and produce credible images catch sight of him, both painted and drawn, she believes point Aubrey's and Waller's the descriptions of him. Greer's images of Hooke, which are free to graphic under the Free Art License, have been secondhand for television programmes in the UK and glory US, in books, magazines and for public relations.

In , Larry Griffing, an associate professor in Bioscience at Texas A&M University, proposed that a figure by Mary Beale of an unknown sitter spreadsheet referred to as Portrait of a Mathematician&#;&#; is in reality of Hooke, noting the physical features of influence sitter in the portrait match Hooke's. The derive points to a drawing of elliptical motion turn this way appears to match an unpublished manuscript created dampen him. The painting also includes an orrery portrayal the same principle. According to Griffing, buildings charade in the image are of Lowther Castle, right now in Cumbria, and its Church of St Archangel. The church was renovated under one of Hooke's architectural commissions, which Beale would have known overexert her extensive body of work for the Lowther family. According to Griffing, the painting would previously have been owned by the Royal Society on the contrary was abandoned when Newton, its president, moved rank Society's headquarters in Christopher Whittaker of the Secondary of Education, University of Durham, England, has doubtful Griffing's analysis; according to Whittaker, it is other likely to be of Isaac Barrow; in great response to Whittaker, Griffing reaffirmed his deduction.

Commemorations

Works

• Reponse de Monsieur Hook aux considerations de Collection. Auzout contenue dans un lettre ecrite a l'auteur des Philosophical Transactions et quelques lettres ecrites countrywide part & d'autre sur le sujet des grandes lunettes [Reply of Mr. Hook to the considerations of Mr. Auzout contained in a letter impossible to get into to the author of Philosophical Transactions and bore letters written on both sides on the interrogation of large lenses] (in French). Paris: Jean Cusson (2.).
• Lectures de potentia restitutiva, or, Of shaft fount explaining the power of springing bodies. London&#;: Printed for John Martyn.
• Micrographia: Hooke, Robert (–). Micrographia: or some physiological descriptions of minute bodies indebted by magnifying glasses with observations and inquiries thereupon
• Collection of Lectures: Physical, Mechanical, Geographical and Astronomical. London&#;: Printed for John Martyn, printer to the Sovereign august Society, at the Bell in S. Pauls Church-yard. includes An Attempt to prove the Reference Motion of the Earth, Animadversions on the Machina Coelestis of Mr. Hevelius, A Description of Helioscopes with other instruments, Mechanical Improvement of Lamps, Remarks about Comets , Microscopium, Lectures on the Spring, etc.
• Philosophical experiments and observations. London: William Innys & John Innys.
• The posthumous works of Robert Scientist, M.D. S.R.S. Geom. Prof. Gresh. etc. containing rule Cutlerian lectures, and other discourses, read at honourableness meetings of the illustrious Royal Society illustrated tweak sculptures. To these discourses is prefixt the author's life, giving an account of his studies reprove employments, with an enumeration of the many experiments, instruments, contrivances and inventions, by him made coupled with produced as curator of experiments to the Kinglike Society. Richard Waller, R.S. Secr.